PC- Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate is an excellent engineering polymer. PC has a good balance of properties, with good temperature resistance, excellent impact resistance and also superb optical properties.
Physical Properties
Polycarbonate is tough, durable, strong, hard, rigid, has good cold-temperature impact strength (up to – 100°C) is clear as glass, non-toxic, takes colour pigmentation well, has low moisture absorption and good weather resistance.
Chemical Properties
Resistant to oils, fuels, diluted acids, and alcohols.
Not resistant to strong acids, alkaline solutions and benzene
Typical Applications
Polycarbonate is commonly used in electronic applications that take full advantage of its collective safety features. With good electrical insulation properties along with its good heat-resistant and flame-retardant properties, it is widely used in various products associated with electrical and telecommunications equipment.
Other applications are numerous and include lenses, automotive lighting, CD discs, safety helmets, electrical components, mobile phones, medical products, domestic goods, aerospace and defence applications.
With ‘light-weighting’ a major driver now within the automotive sector, car manufacturers have seen the benefits of changing from glass to polycarbonate for headlamp lenses.
Structure
Polycarbonate , so called since it is a polymer containing Carbonate groups.
Bis phenol A polycarbonate (PC) is a linear chain polymer with a stiff backbone (benzene rings) and methyl side groups, resulting in a high glass transition temperature (Tg) of 150 °C.
The structure is too bulky to crystallise and PC behaves as an amorphous thermoplastic. As such it is rigid and strong but, unexpectedly, it is ductile and is one of the highest impact resistant thermoplastics.
As an amorphous thermoplastic, PC is transparent but soluble in moderately polar organic solvents.
The high Tg allows PC to be used at temperatures in excess of 120 °C.
Identification
PC is flame retardant and will extinguish when removed from the flame. It burns with a luminous yellow and a smoky flame and will tend to char and blister. It gives off no particular odour.
Compared to PA and PET, polycarbonate is self-extinguishing and so performs better in fire situations.
Useful Data
Density – 1.2g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – 3 hours at 120 °C in a dehumidifying hot air drier
Melt Temperature – 280-310 °C
Mould Temperature -80 -110°C
Shrinkage – 0.6-0.8% and with glass filled grades 0.2-0.4%
Trade Names And Manufacturers
SABIC – Lexan
Covestro – Makrolon
Teijin – Panlite
LG Chem – Lupoy
Mitsubishi Plastics – Iupilon
Idemitsu – Tarflon
Chi Mei – Wonderlite
Polyram – Ramtough
Romira – Rotec
Trinseo – Calibre
Samyang Kasei – Trirex
Kotec – Carbotex
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
Although Polycarbonates were first discovered back in 1898 by a German scientist working at the University of Munich called Alfred Einhorn, it was not until much later in 1953, when Hermann Schnell working for the German chemical company Bayer in Uerdingen, patented the first linear polycarbonate. The brand name Makrolon was registered just a couple of years later in 1955.
Also in 1953, and bizarrely only one week after the invention at Bayer, across the Atlantic, a Mr Daniel Fox of General Electric in Schenectady, New York, independently synthesized a branched polycarbonate.
After some legal wrangling, the patent priority was eventually resolved in 1958 in Bayer’s favour, and they then began commercial production of polycarbonate under their new trade name Makrolon.
General Electric (GE) then began production of their polycarbonate under the name Lexan in 1960. To this day they remain the two predominant trade names in the field of polycarbonates. Both are available from Hardie Polymers.
PC/ABS
PC/ABS is one of the most widely used engineering polymers. It is produced from a blend of PC and ABS.
It provides a great combination of the very good processing characteristics of ABS along with the excellent mechanical properties, impact and also the heat resistance of PC.
Physical Properties
- High Heat resistance
- Easy to process
- High gloss
- Easy to colour and to print onto
- High impact strength and also at low temperatures
- High stiffness
- Low overall shrinkage with high dimensional accuracy
Chemical Properties
Only has limited resistance to hydrolysis.
Not resistant to ketones, esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons
Typical Applications
Automotive interior parts
Electronic components
Mobile phone housings
Television housings
Keypads
Tablets/Laptop cases
Business machines/ copiers
Within the automotive sector, PC/ABS is a material in particularly high demand.
The growing move towards customer personalisation within the vehicle has led to significant change in the design of automotive interiors as consumers look for a more individual experience.
Car interiors now offer improved functionality and a much more elegant and luxurious appearance in order to satisfy this desire.
PC/ABS is widely used in both interior and exterior applications due to its excellent balance of mechanical properties and ease of processing but the downside is that these materials typically produce less attractive, high-gloss surfaces.
To eliminate this issue, parts often require texturing or painting to deliver the desired low gloss appearance associated with the premium car brands.
Structure
Amorphous
All blends are produced using a compounding step to blend the polymers. This compounding technology is most important for creating the optimal conditions for homogenisation and interaction between the two phases.
Using a combination of the right additives, for example: flame retardant additives, stabilisation packages, and impact modifiers for improved reinforcement, blends are produced with an optimum set of balanced properties.
The balance between the PC and the ABS affects mainly the heat resistance of the polymer.
Useful data
Density – 1.15 g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – 4 hours at 80°C in a dehumidifying hot air drier
Melt temperature – 260-270°C
Mould Temperature – 70-90 °C
Shrinkage – 0.5-0.7%. For glass filled grades 0.2-0.4%
Trade names and manufacturers
Covestro – Bayblend
Sabic – Cycoloy
LG Chem – Lupoy
Trinseo – Pulse
Romira – Romiloy
Chi Mei – Wonderloy
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
ABS
ABS is one of the original engineering thermoplastics.
A classic all-rounder with a good blend of performance and also aesthetic properties.
Physical Properties
| Advantages | Disadvantages |
| ABS is hard and reasonably tough (even at low temperatures); easily processed, giving good gloss, good surface appearance and scuff resistance. ABS can be electroplated, painted and is easily bonded by heat welding processes or by adhesives. ABS has a low mould shrinkage and low warpage. | Poor resistance to certain solvents; poor UV resistance; prone to mechanical fatigue and has poor bearing properties (high friction and high wear); Heat distortion temperatures (short term) are up to and over 100°C but the continuous use temperature is limited to 70°C. Burns freely with a smoky flame. |
In general ABS materials have good impact resistance, softening points as high as, or higher than, polystyrene and produce mouldings with very good surface appearance and ‘mark resistance’. Resistance to oil and grease is adequate for many applications.
The poor resistance to atmospheric oxidation takes the form of yellowing and embrittlement but ABS can be protected using stabiliser additives, painting or capping sheet with a clear layer of acrylic.
Being a two-phase system like HIPS, transparency is low and most grades are opaque. It is possible to produce transparent grades of ABS but their impact strength is greatly reduced.
Typical Applications
Low impact grades: telecommunication applications, domestic appliances e.g. vacuum cleaners
Medium impact grades: garden equipment
High impact grades: pipe, lawnmower housings
High heat grades: automotive parts, washing machine parts
Structure
Amorphous.
By balancing the three main repeat units (styrene, butadiene and acrylonitrile) and varying the ratio of rigid phase to rubbery phase it is possible to produce a very wide range of grades of ABS. Increasing the rubbery content gives improved impact resistance. Increasing the acrylonitrile content gives better chemical resistance.
Replacing the styrene by alpha-methyl- styrene increases the heat distortion temperature. The melt flow properties are controlled by varying the molecular sizes of the components and by using lubricant additives.
To improve on the two main drawbacks of polystyrene, poor oil resistance and brittleness, it is possible to combine the advantages of the improved chemical resistance of SAN and the effect of rubber modification of HIPS.
ABS can be considered as a blend of small rubbery particles in a continuous rigid phase of styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN). To match the chemical resistance of the SAN, the rubbery particles are usually of an oil resistant elastomer, butadiene-acrylonitrile rubber (NBR).
Identification
Highly flammable. Burns with a bright yellow and smoky flame and gives off a sweet styrene odour.
Useful data
Density – 1.06-1.19 g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – 3 hours at 80°C in a dehumidifying hot air drier
Melt temperature – 220-250°C
Mould Temperature – 40-80°C
Shrinkage – 0.4-0.7%
Major Trade names and their manufacturers
SABIC- Cycolac
Korea Kumho Petrochemical Co., Ltd. Kumho
L G Chem Ltd. – LG
INEOS – Lustran
CHIMEI – Polylac
A.Schulman – Ronfalin
ROMIRA Rotec
INEOS Styrolution – Terluran
TRINSEO – Magnum
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
One of the original ABS grades was Cycolac. In 1961 Anchor Chemicals formed a Joint Venture with Marbon Chemical of the USA to establish a plant at Grangemouth to make Marbon Cycolac ABS.
ABS was one of the earliest engineering polymers available and started being used in a huge number of applications such as telephones and business machines. Between 1961 and 1967, global sales for Cycolac jumped 350%, cornering half the market in ABS resins.
Hardie Polymers were closely involved in the 1960’s with the sale of Cycolac to Hoover for their vacuum cleaners which were manufactured in Cambuslang near Glasgow and also to NCR in Dundee for their early cash register machines.
POM or Acetal
POM / Acetal is a fabulously tough engineering polymer also with great anti-friction properties.
Physical Properties
- Very hard, stiff and tough
- Natural lubricity
- High heat resistance
- High abrasion resistance
- Low moisture absorption
- Great anti friction properties
- Unbreakable down to -40°C
Chemical Properties
Resistant to weak acids and alkaline solutions, fuels, benzene, oils and alcohols.
Not resistant to strong acids.
Typical Applications
- Engineering components
- Gear wheels
- Ski bindings
- Locks
- Fasteners
- Fan wheels, springs, chains and nuts
- Insulators
- Bobbins and Connectors etc
- Medical applications such as inhalers
Structure
Partially crystalline
Different manufacturing processes are used to produce the homopolymer and copolymer versions of POM.
Identification
Highly flammable, gives off a bluish flame and then drips and continues to burn. Smells like formaldehyde when extinguished.
Useful data
Density – 1.41-1.42 g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – Not necessary unless it has become moist. Then 4 hours at 100°C in a dehumidifying hot air drier
Melt temperature – 205-215 °C
Mould Temperature – 40-120 °C
Shrinkage – Approx 2 %. Allow 24 hours for full shrinkage to occur.
Trade names and manufacturers
DuPont – Delrin
Formosa Corporation -Formocon
Celanese – Hostaform
Mitsubishi Engineering Plastics – Iupital
Korea Engineering Plastics – Kepital
LG Chem – Lucel
Grupa Azoty – Tarnoform
BASF – Ultraform
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
The worlds first Acetal polymer was introduced in 1960 by DuPont and was named Delrin ®. It is widely used in many different applications today such as automotive, industrial, electronic and consumer goods.
Delrin® is the registered trademark for DuPont’s brand of acetal homopolymer resin which is also commonly referred to as polyoxymethylene (POM).
Around two years later in 1962, Polycetal copolymer was invented by Celanese. Many other companies around the world now produce this material – please refer to the list below for examples.
Nylon 6 and Nylon 66 – PA6 and PA66
Nylon or Polyamide is an engineering polymer offering excellent toughness and also abrasion resistance.
Physical Properties
- Stiff, strong and tough but have poor creep resistance
- Low friction and good wear resistance
- Good solvent resistance at room temperature but the hydrogen bonding encourages moisture uptake (up to 8%). The absorbed water acts as a plasticiser and improves impact strength
- Show low permeability of oxygen Are translucent to opaque
- Polyamides make very good fibres (tough and extensible).
- Polyamides are prone to oxidation and yellowing in sunlight.
Chemical Properties
Resistant to oils, fuels, benzene, alkaline solutions, solvent, chlorinated hydrocarbons, esters and ketones.
Not resistant to ozone, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide.
Typical Applications
Automotive parts include door handles, air intake manifolds and radiator grills.
Low Voltage Switch Gears including: fuses, contactors, miniature circuit breakers, switches and relays Gears and bearings
- Tubing
- Rollers
- Fuel tanks
- Textiles
Structure
Semi-crystalline
Polyamides (nylons) are a family of linear chain polymers.
The lower code number members (polyamide 6 and polyamide 6.6) have a higher concentration of amide link groups than the high code number members (polyamide 11 and polyamide 12).
Polyamides with a higher concentration of amide links are more polar than the high code number polyamides, which tend towards the properties of polyethylene.
Higher concentrations of amide links encourage cross-linking through hydrogen bonding. The lower the code number the higher the degree of crystallinity. The simple chain structure has reasonable flexibility and the glass transition temperature (Tg) will be 50°C and lower for the high code numbers
Identification
Flammable with a blue flame and a yellow rim to it. It continues to burn after the ignition source has been removed. When burnt it will froth and produce stringing drips. It smells like burnt horn.
Useful Data
Density – 1.14 g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – 4 hours at 80°C in a dehumidifying hot air drier, unless taken directly from a hermetically sealed bag. .PA is hygroscopic and so will absorb moisture if left in unsealed bags or containers.
Melt temperature – PA 6: 240-250 °C / PA 66: 270-290 °C
Mould Temperature – PA 6: 60-100 °C / PA 66: 60-100 °C
Shrinkage – PA 6: 0.7-2.0 % , if glass filled then 0.3-0.8 % / PA66: 0.7-2.0 % , if glass filled then 0.4-0.7 %
Trade Names And Manufacturers
Akulon – DSM
Durethan – Lanxess
Polytron – Polytron Kunststofftechnik
Ultramid – BASF
Zytel – DuPont
Plustek – Polyram
Rilsan _ Arkema
Technyl – Solvay
Vydene – Ascend Performance Materials
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
Wallace Carothers of DuPont discovered polyamide 6.6 in 1931. In October 1938 commercial production of nylon 6,6 began. The first commercial application were for the bristles for the Miracle Tuft toothbrush. The following year, nylon stockings became available and were a sensation at the World’s Fair in New York City
Nylon 6 was developed in the 1940’s (largely as a consequence of the patent that existed on Nylon 6,6). With the start of World War II, nylon was then commandeered for war purposes for example, to make canopies for parachutes. Nylon for injection moulding did not begin until the 1950’s.
PMMA / Acrylic
Polymethyl methacrylate
PMMA is a clear engineering plastic often used as a replacement for glass and it also has outstanding surface hardness.
Physical Properties
PMMA (Polymethyl methacrylate) is glass clear with high light transmission and good optical quality.
Extremely long service life with high resistance to UV light and weathering.
Strong and scratch proof but also brittle It also has unlimited colouring potential.
PMMA shows the greatest surface hardness of all the thermoplastics.
It can be fabricated by means of all thermoforming methods, and therefore offers huge creative scope. PMMA is 100% recyclable.
Susceptible to stress cracking.
Chemical Properties
Resistant to weak acids and alkaline solutions, grease and oil.
Not resistant to strong acids and alkaline solutions, chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Typical Applications
Glazing, safety screens, lenses, light fittings, displays, baths, dental fittings, bone cement, aquariums, automotive rear lighting clusters, light guides.
Structure
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is a typical amorphous thermoplastic.
Identification
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is highly flammable and burns with a bright and smoky crackling flame even after it is moved away from the source of ignition. Gives off a sweet and fruity smell.
Useful Data
Density – 1.18 g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – 4 hours at 80°C in a dehumidifying hot air drier. Very prone to water absorption.
Melt temperature – 220 – 250°C
Mould Temperature – 40-80°C
Shrinkage – 0.3-0.7%
Trade Names And Manufacturers
Arkema – Plexiglas / Altuglas
LG MMA Corp. – LG
Plaskolite – Optix
Lucite – Acrypet / Diakon
Cast Acrylic such as Perspex and Plexiglas are also available in sheet and rod form and suitable for machining and thermoforming.
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
The first acrylic acid was created in 1843. In 1865 Methacrylic acid, derived from acrylic acid, was formulated and in 1877 the German chemist Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, discovered the polymerization process that turned methyl methacrylate into polymethyl methacrylate. In 1933, the brand name ‘Plexiglas’ was patented and registered by another German chemist, Otto Röhm.
In 1936 Imperial Chemical Industries, the famous old ICI, (now Lucite) started production of acrylic safety glass. During the Second World War, PMMA was often used instead of glass in gun turrets and windshields for aircraft, proving a much safer material in battle situations for our airmen.
TPE – Thermoplastic Elastomer
TPE is the general name for Thermoplastic Elastomer, also referred to as thermoplastic rubber. TPEs really are a unique class of engineering polymer which combine the look and feel of a conventional (thermoset) rubber but with the ease of processing a plastic.
Physical Properties
TPE is a rubber-like material and is available in many different (shore) hardness’s. The compounds are made from hard thermoplastic materials like PP, PBT or PA in combination with a soft rubber material and can incorporate additives such as oils and fillers.
- Soft touch with good elasticity properties.
- Comfortable to hold, with good non-slip properties.
- Much easier to mould and process than conventional rubber.
- Easily coloured and over-moulded onto various thermoplastics with good adhesion.
- Good tear and abrasion resistance
- Excellent resistance to chemicals & weathering
- Recyclable
- Good electrical properties
Some variants of TPE such as TPU have good strength but compared to conventional thermoset rubbers, TPE’s generally have inferior material properties with lower temperature resistance, chemical resistance and perform worse under load.
A key indicator is their softness or hardness value as measured on the Shore durometer scale. Like crosslinked rubber, TPEs are available as very soft gel materials from 20 Shore OO up to 90 Shore A, at which point they enter the Shore D scale and can be formulated to give hardness values up to 85 Shore D, which designates a material that is very hard.
There are several different types of TPE listed below in approximate ascending price order:
- TPE-S – Styrenic SBS, SEBS Compounds
- TPE-O – Thermoplastic Olefins
- TPE-V – Vulcanized PP/EPDM Compound
- TPE-U – Thermoplastic Polyurethane
- TPE-E – Co-Polyester Compound
- TPE-A – Thermoplastic Polyamide
The ‘E’ is generally left out and the grades will tend to be referred to as TPO, TPS, TPV, TPE, TPU and TPA.
Typical Applications
- Soft touch handles for power tools, toothbrushes, domestic appliances etc.
- Automotive – seals, mats, control knobs and buttons, air bag covers
- Wire and cable coatings
- Sports equipment – grips on hockey sticks, ski boot features
- Medical – seals and connectors, mouthpieces
- Construction – weather-proof membranes
- Toys
Density
0.91 – 1.3 g/cm3
Trade Names And Manufacturers
Arnitel – DSM
Chemiton – Franplast
Desmopan – Covestro
Elastollan – BASF
Evoprene – Mexichem
Hytrel – DuPont
Laripur – Coim
Megol – API
Pebax – Arkema
Santoprene – Exxon Mobil
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
The first thermoplastic elastomer became available in 1959. At that time rubber compounds (thermosets) were already popular in the automotive market but they were expensive, difficult to produce and hard to recycle.
Product designers were continually looking for materials that would provide new benefits to the consumer and needed a soft, cheaper material that was easier to process and TPE was the answer.
Since the 1970’s with new product applications being continually developed, there was a demand for more grades with differing properties. Material manufacturers have now brought many different variants of TPE to the market to meet this demand.
PBT
Polybutylene terephthalate
PBT is a strong, hard and also a stable engineering polymer widely used for electrical applications as an insulator. Part of the Polyester thermoplastics family
Physical Properties
- High thermal stability
- Great stiffness and hardness
- Excellent for applications requiring anti-friction properties and abrasion resistance
- Resistant to environmental stress cracking
- Great dimensional stability
- High strength
- Low water absorption
- Good weathering performance
- High Continuous service temperature – up to 150°C
- Excellent resistance to Creep
Chemical Properties
Resistant to oils, grease, alcohols, fuel, ethers, weak acids and alkaline solutions.
Not resistant to benzene, alkalis, strong acids, alkaline solutions and ketones.
Typical Applications
Automotive; there has been much growth in automotive electronics in recent years and PBT is a popular choice for many of these parts. Under bonnet parts, sensors, ignition systems and also exterior parts e.g. mirror housings.
Electrical and electronic parts such as bobbins, connectors, sockets, switches, circuit breakers, meter housings, appliance housings and light fittings
Can be used in yarn and fibre as a coating
Structure
PBT is a semi-crystalline polymer used mainly for injection moulding in engineering applications.
When PET was introduced its melt processing temperature was beyond the range of most injection moulding machines at that time and PBT was introduced as a thermoplastic with many of the properties of PET but had a lower processing temperature.
PBT can match the mechanical properties of PET, particularly when reinforced with glass fibre.
PBT is well suited to thin wall mouldings.
Some PBT grades have rapid crystallisation allowing fast cycle times.
Identification
Flame retardant and will extinguish outside the flame. Gives off a bright yellow/orange flame with a sweet smell.
Useful Data
Density –1.3 g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – 4 hours at 120°C in a dehumidifying hot air drier
Melt temperature – 250-260°C
Mould Temperature – 60-80°C
Shrinkage – Depends heavily on mould temperature. The hotter the mould, the higher the shrinkage 1.4-2.0 %. In the case of 30% glass filled PBT only 0.4-0.6%
Trade Names And Manufacturers
Crastin – DuPont
Pocan – Lanxess
Ultradur – BASF
Lupox – LG Chem
Valox – Sabic IP
Ramster – Polyram
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
Fibre forming Polyesters were first produced in 1932 by Carothers and Hill of DuPont, with the first PBT fibres produced 10 years later in 1942. PBT compounds for moulding were launched in the 1970’s and as demand grew with new applications being found, so the number of producers also steadily increased.
SAN – Styrene-Acrylonitrile copolymer
SAN is a transparent and glossy engineering polymer also with good scratch and chemical resistance.
Physical Properties
Rigid, transparent, tough, resistant to greases, stress cracking and crazing, easily processed, resistant to food stains. Easy to process and colour.
| Advantages | Disadvantages |
| Better chemical resistance than polystyrene, particularly to oil, petrol and grease; higher heat distortion temperature than polystyrene; good combination of rigidity, strength, toughness and transparency. | More expensive than polystyrene; less transparent than polystyrene, acrylic and polycarbonate; inferior UV resistance to acrylic. |
Chemical Properties
Resistant to oils, grease, acids and alkaline solutions and saturated hydrocarbons.
Not resistant to concentrated mineral acids, aromatic hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons, esters, ethers and ketones.
Typical Applications
Water jugs, drinking tumblers, kitchen and picnic ware hi-fi covers, lenses, water jugs and toothbrush handles, radio dials, TV set screens, washing machine trims.
Light diffusers, reflectors, display windows for electrical equipment, dials, knobs, covers, TV set screens, washing machine trim.
Cosmetics, lipsticks, lotion jars etc.
Structure
The highly polar acrylonitrile repeat unit raises the chemical polarity of the copolymer and makes it more resistant to hydrocarbon solvents (better resistance to oils, petrol and grease) while still retaining good water resistance. However the higher the acrylonitrile content the more difficult the SAN is to process.
The copolymer, being homogeneous and amorphous, retains high clarity although the slight yellow cast can be masked by tinting with a blue colorant or by creating a smoke effect.
The more polar nature of SAN also gives higher strength and impact resistance than general purpose polystyrene and also a higher heat distortion temperature.
Identification
Highly flammable, burns with a bright yellow flame and will give off a lot of smoke. Will emit the usual sweet smell of styrenes
Useful Data
Density – 1.08 g/cm ³
Pre-Drying – 4 hours at 80°C in a dehumidifying hot air drier
Melt temperature – 220-250°C
Mould Temperature – 40-80°C
Shrinkage – 0.4-0.7%
Trade Names And Manufacturers
Kostil – Versalis
Kumho – Kumho Petrochemical
Luran – Ineos Styrolution
LG – LG Chem
Grupa Azoty – Tarnoform
BASF – Ultraform
Hardie Polymers can help source grades from all of the above manufacturers
History
Styrene Acrylonitrile copolymers have been around since the 1940’s.
With its increased toughness over polystyrene it had many advantages which made it suitable for numerous applications, particularly around the kitchen for example where it’s attractiveness and resistance to fats, oils and cleaning agents came to the fore.
However, its limitations ultimately led to the introduction of a new material where butadiene rubber was added as a third monomer, and so the range of materials referred to as ABS plastics came about.